Wednesday, 25 May 2016

MatLab Code For Converting RGB Image Into 4 shaded colors

This Is My Original Picture...

And Following is the MatLab Code....

a = imread('mirwise.jpg');
a(1:640,1:360,[1 2])=0;
a(640:1280,1:360,[2 3])=0;
a(640:1280,360:720,[1 3]=0;
a(640:1280,360:720,[1 3]=0;
a(640:1280,360:720,[1 3])=0;
imshow(a)

This Is My Converted Picture.

MatLab Code to convert half RGB image into gray scale

This Is My Converted Picture...

And Following is the MatLab code ...

imgRGB=imread('mirwise.jpg');

imgGray=rgb2gray(imgRGB);

[r,c,~]=size(imgRGB);

c=round(c/2);

imgSplit=imgRGB;

for i=1:3

imgSplit([1:r],[1:c],i)=imgGray([1:r],[1:c]);

end

imshow(imgSplit)

And Here is my Original RGB Image...

MatLab Code For Electricity Bill Calculator

Electricity Bills calculator…

take=input('Enter Units Consumed ');

reading=take;

ans=0;

while(ans==0)

if reading>400

ans=reading*10;

elseif(reading>300)&&(reading<=400)

ans=units*8;

elseif(reading>200)&&(reading<=300)

ans=reading*6;

elseif(reading>0)&&(reading<=200)

ans=reading*5;

end;

disp('Total Cost Is ');

disp(ans);

Is huffman coding Deterministic OR Non Deterministic?

Answer…Huffman coding is non deterministic and it is not deterministic because you cannot determine the ending point of its usage it can be used at any point and in any field therefor one cannot imagine its level of usage and its end.It is impossible to hack also therefore it is non deterministic and nobody can determine its elasticness…

Introduction To Histogram

Introduction to histograms… Before discussing the use of Histograms in image processing, we will first look at what histogram is, how it is used and then an example of histograms to hHistograms

A histogram is a graph. A graph that shows frequency of anything. Usually histogram have bars that represent frequency of occurring of data in the whole data set.

A Histogram has two axis the x axis and the y axis.

The x axis contains event whose frequency you have to count.

The y axis contains frequency.

The different heights of bar shows different frequency of occurrence of data.

Usually a histogram looks like this.

Now we will see an example of this histogram is build

Example

Consider a class of programming students and you are teaching python to them.

At the end of the semester, you got this result that is shown in table. But it is very messy and does not show your overall result of class. So you have to make a histogram of your result, showing the overall frequency of occurrence of grades in your class. Here how you are going to do it.

Result sheet

Name	Grade
Kham	A
Jahangeer	D
Izhar	B
Tahir	A
Ibrahim	C+
Durrani	A-
Qaisar	B+

Histogram of result sheet

Now what you are going to do is, that you have to find what comes on the x and the y axis.

There is one thing to be sure, that y axis contains the frequency, so what comes on the x axis. X axis contains the event whose frequency has to be calculated. In this case x axis contains grades.

Now we will how do we use a histogram in an image.

Histogram of an image

Histogram of an image, like other histograms also shows frequency. But an image histogram, shows frequency of pixels intensity values. In an image histogram, the x axis shows the gray level intensities and the y axis shows the frequency of these intensities.

For example

The histogram of the above picture of the Einstein would be something like this

The x axis of the histogram shows the range of pixel values. Since its an 8 bpp image, that means it has 256 levels of gray or shades of gray in it. Thats why the range of x axis starts from 0 and end at 255 with a gap of 50. Whereas on the y axis, is the count of these intensities.

As you can see from the graph, that most of the bars that have high frequency lies in the first half portion which is the darker portion. That means that the image we have got is darker. And this can be proved from the image too.

Applications of Histograms

Histograms has many uses in image processing. The first use as it has also been discussed above is the analysis of the image. We can predict about an image by just looking at its histogram. Its like looking an x ray of a bone of a body.

The second use of histogram is for brightness purposes. The histograms has wide application in image brightness. Not only in brightness, but histograms are also used in adjusting contrast of an image.

Another important use of histogram is to equalize an image.

And last but not the least, histogram has wide use in thresholding. This is mostly used in computer vision.

Introduction To Huffman Coding

Introduction to huffman coding

In computer science and information theory, a Huffman code is a particular type of optimal prefix code that is commonly used for lossless data compression. The process of finding and/or using such a code proceeds by means of Huffman coding, an algorithm developed by David A. Huffman while he was a Ph.D. student at MIT, and published in the 1952 paper "A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy Codes".^[1]

The output from Huffman's algorithm can be viewed as a variable-length code table for encoding a source symbol (such as a character in a file). The algorithm derives this table from the estimated probability or frequency of occurrence (weight) for each possible value of the source symbol. As in other entropy encoding methods, more common symbols are generally represented using fewer bits than less common symbols. Huffman's method can be efficiently implemented, finding a code in linear time to the number of input weights if these weights are sorted.^[2] However, although optimal among methods encoding symbols separately, Huffman coding is not always optimal among all compression methods.

History about David A Huffman

In 1951, David A. Huffman and his MIT information theory classmates were given the choice of a term paper or a final exam. The professor, Robert M. Fano, assigned a term paper on the problem of finding the most efficient binary code. Huffman, unable to prove any codes were the most efficient, was about to give up and start studying for the final when he hit upon the idea of using a frequency-sorted binary tree and quickly proved this method the most efficient.^[3]

In doing so, Huffman outdid Fano, who had worked with information theory inventor Claude Shannon to develop a similar code. By building the tree from the bottom up instead of the top down, Huffman avoided the major flaw of the suboptimalShannon-Fano coding.

Terminology

Huffman coding uses a specific method for choosing the representation for each symbol, resulting in a prefix code (sometimes called "prefix-free codes", that is, the bit string representing some particular symbol is never a prefix of the bit string representing any other symbol). Huffman coding is such a widespread method for creating prefix codes that the term "Huffman code" is widely used as a synonym for "prefix code" even when such a code is not produced by Huffman's algorithm.

Basic techniques like,,,,

Compression

A source generates 4 different symbols with probability . A binary tree is generated from left to right taking the two least probable symbols and putting them together to form another equivalent symbol having a probability that equals the sum of the two symbols. The process is repeated until there is just one symbol. The tree can then be read backwards, from right to left, assigning different bits to different branches. The final Huffman code is:

Symbol	Code
a1	0
a2	10
a3	110
a4	111

The standard way to represent a signal made of 4 symbols is by using 2 bits/symbol, but the entropy of the source is 1.74 bits/symbol. If this Huffman code is used to represent the signal, then the average length is lowered to 1.85 bits/symbol; it is still far from the theoretical limit because the probabilities of the symbols are different from negative powers of two.

The technique works by creating a binary tree of nodes. These can be stored in a regular array, the size of which depends on the number of symbols,

. A node can be either a leaf node or an internal node. Initially, all nodes are leaf nodes, which contain the symbol itself, the weight (frequency of appearance) of the symbol and optionally, a link to a parent node which makes it easy to read the code (in reverse) starting from a leaf node. Internal nodes contain symbol weight, links to two child nodes and the optional link to a parent node. As a common convention, bit '0' represents following the left child and bit '1' represents following the right child. A finished tree has up to

leaf nodes and

internal nodes. A Huffman tree that omits unused symbols produces the most optimal code lengths.

The process essentially begins with the leaf nodes containing the probabilities of the symbol they represent, then a new node whose children are the 2 nodes with smallest probability is created, such that the new node's probability is equal to the sum of the children's probability. With the previous 2 nodes merged into one node (thus not considering them anymore), and with the new node being now considered, the procedure is repeated until only one node remains, the Huffman tree.

The simplest construction algorithm uses a priority queue where the node with lowest probability is given highest priority:

1. Create a leaf node for each symbol and add it to the priority queue.

2. While there is more than one node in the queue:

1. Remove the two nodes of highest priority (lowest probability) from the queue

2. Create a new internal node with these two nodes as children and with probability equal to the sum of the two nodes' probabilities.

3. Add the new node to the queue.

3. The remaining node is the root node and the tree is complete.

Since efficient priority queue data structures require O(log n) time per insertion, and a tree with n leaves has 2n−1 nodes, this algorithm operates in O(n log n) time, where n is the number of symbols.

If the symbols are sorted by probability, there is a linear-time (O(n)) method to create a Huffman tree using two queues, the first one containing the initial weights (along with pointers to the associated leaves), and combined weights (along with pointers to the trees) being put in the back of the second queue. This assures that the lowest weight is always kept at the front of one of the two queues:

1. Enqueue all leaf nodes into the first queue (by probability in increasing order so that the least likely item is in the head of the queue).

2. While there is more than one node in the queues:

1. Dequeue the two nodes with the lowest weight by examining the fronts of both queues.

2. Create a new internal node, with the two just-removed nodes as children (either node can be either child) and the sum of their weights as the new weight.

3. Enqueue the new node into the rear of the second queue.

3. The remaining node is the root node; the tree has now been generated.

How to generate Huffman Encoding Trees

This section provides practice in the use of list structure and data abstraction to manipulate sets and trees. The application is to methods for representing data as sequences of ones and zeros (bits). For example, the ASCII standard code used to represent text in computers encodes each character as a sequence of seven bits. Using seven bits allows us to distinguish 2⁷, or 128, possible different characters. In general, if we want to distinguish n different symbols, we will need to use $\log_2 n$ bits per symbol. If all our messages are made up of the eight symbols A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H, we can choose a code with three bits per character, for example

A 000	C 010	E 100	G 110
B 001	D 011	F 101	H 111

With this code, the message

BACADAEAFABBAAAGAH

is encoded as the string of 54 bits

001000010000011000100000101000001001000000000110000111

Codes such as ASCII and the A-through-H code above are known as fixed-length codes, because they represent each symbol in the message with the same number of bits. It is sometimes advantageous to use variable-length codes, in which different symbols may be represented by different numbers of bits. For example, Morse code does not use the same number of dots and dashes for each letter of the alphabet. In particular, E, the most frequent letter, is represented by a single dot. In general, if our messages are such that some symbols appear very frequently and some very rarely, we can encode data more efficiently (i.e., using fewer bits per message) if we assign shorter codes to the frequent symbols. Consider the following alternative code for the letters A through H:

A 0	C 1010	E 1100	G 1110
B 100	D 1011	F 1101	H 1111

With this code, the same message as above is encoded as the string

100010100101101100011010100100000111001111

This string contains 42 bits, so it saves more than 20% in space in comparison with the fixed-length code shown above.

One of the difficulties of using a variable-length code is knowing when you have reached the end of a symbol in reading a sequence of zeros and ones. Morse code solves this problem by using a special separator code (in this case, a pause) after the sequence of dots and dashes for each letter. Another solution is to design the code in such a way that no complete code for any symbol is the beginning (or prefix) of the code for another symbol. Such a code is called a prefix code. In the example above, A is encoded by 0 and B is encoded by 100, so no other symbol can have a code that begins with 0 or with 100.
In general, we can attain significant savings if we use variable-length prefix codes that take advantage of the relative frequencies of the symbols in the messages to be encoded. One particular scheme for doing this is called the Huffman encoding method, after its discoverer, David Huffman. A Huffman code can be represented as a binary tree whose leaves are the symbols that are encoded. At each non-leaf node of the tree there is a set containing all the symbols in the leaves that lie below the node. In addition, each symbol at a leaf is assigned a weight (which is its relative frequency), and each non-leaf node contains a weight that is the sum of all the weights of the leaves lying below it. The weights are not used in the encoding or the decoding process. We will see below how they are used to help construct the tree.

Figure shows the Huffman tree for the A-through-H code given above. The weights at the leaves indicate that the tree was designed for messages in which A appears with relative frequency 8, B with relative frequency 3, and the other letters each with relative frequency 1.
Given a Huffman tree, we can find the encoding of any symbol by starting at the root and moving down until we reach the leaf that holds the symbol. Each time we move down a left branch we add a 0 to the code, and each time we move down a right branch we add a 1. (We decide which branch to follow by testing to see which branch either is the leaf node for the symbol or contains the symbol in its set.) For example, starting from the root of the tree in figure

, we arrive at the leaf for D by following a right branch, then a left branch, then a right branch, then a right branch; hence, the code for D is 1011.
To decode a bit sequence using a Huffman tree, we begin at the root and use the successive zeros and ones of the bit sequence to determine whether to move down the left or the right branch. Each time we come to a leaf, we have generated a new symbol in the message, at which point we start over from the root of the tree to find the next symbol. For example, suppose we are given the tree above and the sequence 10001010. Starting at the root, we move down the right branch, (since the first bit of the string is 1), then down the left branch (since the second bit is 0), then down the left branch (since the third bit is also 0). This brings us to the leaf for B, so the first symbol of the decoded message is B. Now we start again at the root, and we make a left move because the next bit in the string is 0. This brings us to the leaf for A. Then we start again at the root with the rest of the string 1010, so we move right, left, right, left and reach C. Thus, the entire message is BAC.
Generating Huffman trees
Given an ``alphabet'' of symbols and their relative frequencies, how do we construct the ``best'' code? (In other words, which tree will encode messages with the fewest bits?) Huffman gave an algorithm for doing this and showed that the resulting code is indeed the best variable-length code for messages where the relative frequency of the symbols matches the frequencies with which the code was constructed. We will not prove this optimality of Huffman codes here, but we will show how Huffman trees are constructed.
The algorithm for generating a Huffman tree is very simple. The idea is to arrange the tree so that the symbols with the lowest frequency appear farthest away from the root. Begin with the set of leaf nodes, containing symbols and their frequencies, as determined by the initial data from which the code is to be constructed. Now find two leaves with the lowest weights and merge them to produce a node that has these two nodes as its left and right branches. The weight of the new node is the sum of the two weights. Remove the two leaves from the original set and replace them by this new node. Now continue this process. At each step, merge two nodes with the smallest weights, removing them from the set and replacing them with a node that has these two as its left and right branches. The process stops when there is only one node left, which is the root of the entire tree. Here is how the Huffman tree of figure was generated:

Initial leaves	{(A 8) (B 3) (C 1) (D 1) (E 1) (F 1) (G 1) (H 1)}
Merge	{(A 8) (B 3) ({C D} 2) (E 1) (F 1) (G 1) (H 1)}
Merge	{(A 8) (B 3) ({C D} 2) ({E F} 2) (G 1) (H 1)}
Merge	{(A 8) (B 3) ({C D} 2) ({E F} 2) ({G H} 2)}
Merge	{(A 8) (B 3) ({C D} 2) ({E F G H} 4)}
Merge	{(A 8) ({B C D} 5) ({E F G H} 4)}
Merge	{(A 8) ({B C D E F G H} 9)}
Final merge	{({A B C D E F G H} 17)}

The algorithm does not always specify a unique tree, because there may not be unique smallest-weight nodes at each step. Also, the choice of the order in which the two nodes are merged (i.e., which will be the right branch and which will be the left branch) is arbitrary.

Gathered by Mirwise Bhatti Mcs 3^rd

Application of Computer Graphics

Application of computer graphics can be classified in four basic areas
display of Information
design
Simulation
User Interfaces

In many works two or three of these areas have been worked on and in some cases people work on all these areas. Let us now study each of these areas separately… Display of Information The field of ComputerGraphics has always been associated with the display of information. Examples of the use of orthographic projections to display floorplans of buildings can be found on 4000-year-old Babylonian stone tablets. Mechanical methods for creating perspective drawings were developed during the Renaissance. Countless engineering students have become familiar with interpreting data plotted on log paper. More recently ,software packages that allow interactive design of charts incorporating color ,multiple data sets ,and alternate plotting methods have become the norm. In fields such as architecture and mechanical design ,hand drafting is being replaced by computer-based drafting systems using plotters and workstations. Medical imaging uses computer graphics in a number of exciting ways.Like it has helped a lot in visualizing the scientific amagesthe scientists nowadays have super computers for many purposes like researches and all but graphics displays to be the best field till date… Design In Professions such like engineering and architecture people are concerned with design. Although their applications vary ,most designers face similar difficulties and use similar methods. One of the principal characteristics of most design problems is the lack of a particular solution. So ,the designer will examine a potential design and then will modify it ,possibly many times ,in an attempt to achieve a better solution. Computer graphics has become an indispensable and unreplaceable element in this Particular process. Simulation So some of the most impressive and familiar uses of computer graphics can be classified as simulations. Video games demonstrate both the visual appeal of computer graphics and our ability to generate complex imagery in real time. The insides of an arcade game reveal state-of-the-art hardware and software. Computer-generated images are also the heart of flight simulators ,which have become the standard method for training pilots. The savings in dollars and lives realized from use of these simulators has been enormous. The computer-generated images we see on television and in movies have advanced to the point that they are almost indistinguishable from real-world images.
User interfaces The interface between the Programmer or users and the computer has been radically altered by the use of computer graphics. Consider the electronic office. The figures in this book were produced through just such an interface. A secretary sits at a workstation ,rather than at a desk equipped with a typewriter. This user has a pointing device ,such as a mouse,that allows him to communicate with the workstation. The display consists of a number of icons that represent the various operations the secretary can perform. For example ,there might be an icon of a mailbox that ,if pointed to and clicked on ,causes any electronic-mail messages to appear on the screen. An icon of a wastepaper basket allows the user to dispose of unwanted mail ,whereas an icon of a file cabinet is used to save letters or other documents.
A similar graphical interface would be part of our circuit-design system. Within the context of this book ,we see these interfaces as being obvious uses of computer graphics . From the perspective of the secretary using the office-automation system or of the circuit designer ,however ,the graphics is a secondary aspect of the task to be done. Although they never write graphics programs ,multitudes of computer users use computer graphics.